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Renaissance Venice experienced a return to classical archetypes. The Greeks and Romans had an intricate and highly symbolic polytheism in which human and natural attributes were embodied by various gods, goddesses, demigods and heroes. Venetian painters of the Fifteenth and Sixteenth centuries were acutely aware of these mythological allegories and made full use of them in conveying their message on canvas. Since the message implied by these myths was obscure at times, it seems that the intended audience for such works was the more highly educated segment of the population. In fact, a separation between the initiated and uninitiated served the aristocracies well; the rich and educated were able to fully enjoy the artists' vision, while the peasants could not ‘decipher' the meanings of the paintings. Classical Mythology, Neoplatonism, the mysteries of the pagan world, became chic. The prominent thinkers of the time felt that taste and sensibility should be linked to esoteric, almost private knowledge. This attitude bred a feeling of separateness and intellectual superiority that the upper classes found intoxicating. Therefore, the attitude taken by the rich and powerful were conveyed to the artists, and they in turn reciprocated by producing more works in the same vein, full of riddles and medieval accoutrements. However, this allegorical mode of painting did enable many artists who felt the mystery of life to explore feeling, describe atmosphere or hint at hidden presences. These painters could capture a frenetic slice of humanity and give meaning to the resulting artwork. It is this thread made of multiple mythologies that this exhibition will explore, attempting to relate the role of mythology in Venetian art and culture. The greatest of all the Venetian allegorical painters: Titian, Tintoretto, Bellini, Veronese and Giorgione will be presented in this exhibition.

Artists' Influences

There was an evolution in the role and presentation of mythical imagery in Renaissance times. A rapprochement with Roman culture and the trappings of classical antiquity served to reclaim a rich tapestry of images and icons that had been heavily allegorized in the Middle Ages; Christianity demanded that the images of antiquity be reordered so as to portray Christian themes within the context of these artworks. For example, Ovid's Metamorphoses includes a story of how Zeus fathered Perseus by approaching Danae in a shower of gold; this tale was interpreted in light of the biblical story of Mary's virgin conception of Jesus. However, changes were wrought in Italy during the Renaissance; pagan mythology was interpreted in an imaginative rather than theoretical manner, and these myths were often the subject of inspiration for works of painting and literature. These subjects were popular in Venice because the public belived the period of classical antiquity to be immensely moral, powerful, natural and truthful.

Venetian society experienced shifts in artistic vision throughout the peiod of the Renaissance, creating a relationship between these changes and the use of mythical imagery . For these changes in iconographic perspective to take place a development of civic life was required. It was needful that noble and burgher should first learn to dwell together on equal terms, and that a social world should arise which felt the want of culture, and had the leisure and the means to obtain it. But culture, as soon as it freed itself from the fantastic bonds of the Middle Ages, could not at once and without help find its way to the understanding of the physical and intellectual world. It needed a guide, and found one in the ancient civilization, with its wealth of truth and knowledge in every spiritual interest. Both the form and the substance of this civilization were adopted with admiring gratitude; it became the chief part of the culture of the age. The general condition of the country was favourable to this transformation. The spirit of the people, now awakened to self-consciousness, sought for some new and stable ideal on which to rest. Armed afresh with its culture, the Italian soon felt himself in truth citizen of the most advanced nation in the world.

The individual experience and social milieu of the artists represented in this exhibition played a major role in the practice of their art. Venetian painting evolved its unique character from a temporally extended period of artistic influences. For centuries after the city was founded in the Fifth Century, the dominant artistic influence was Oriental, characterised by its flat, colorful Byzantine style. Then, from the north in late Medieval times came the expressive, linear Gothic style. Finally, from the south, Renaissance Florence brought the warming influence of humanism and some new solutions to pictorial problems, especially the handling of space and depth through linear perspective. By the end of the Fifteenth Century, and largely through the work of one family, a synthesis of the Venetian influences reached greatness. Jacopo Bellini, his sons Gentile and Giovanni, and his son-in-law Andrea Mantegna along with colleague Vittore Carpaccio, were Venice's own masters. The aforementioned reawakening in interest towards painting styles from classical antiquity was one of Jacopo's many interests. Giovanni, considered to be more highly skilled as a painter than both his father and more conservative brother, painted Feast of the Gods in this classical mode. Giovanni created three dimensional figures that exist in airy and spacious scenes of convincing landscapes; his control of natural light and color endows the figures and the flesh with a reality that is almost palpable. In her book Giovanni Bellini, Rona Goffen says of Feast of the Gods "With the obvious exception of Titian's alterations to the composition, notably the landscape at the left, the Feast of the Gods is essentially of a piece. We may assume that Bellini himself, if not responsible for the choice of subject, was at least ‘pleased' to paint it, and may have had a say in its selection.... ...In any case, Bellini certainly determined the way in which his Ovidian subject was interpreted."¹. There was a demand for these classical themes, and artists enjoyed painting them.

Titian repainted parts of the Feast of the Gods during a trip he made to Ferrara in order to complete and deliver the Bacchanal of the Andrians, a work in sharp contrast to Bellini's more subdued painting. Bacchanal is a glorious orgiastic celebration of drunkenness. Titian, now following in Giorgione's footsteps, was seeking to provide his viewers with something more than a careful re-creation of a literary theme. He was attempting to recapture the classical spirit of the story or poem that was his source material. Giorgione was heavily influenced by the classical style, in fact his early style was Greek in its purity, but severe in style. Even so, he achieved a powerful luminosity of color that is elevated him to greatness in Venetian painting. Tintoretto and Veronese, during the latter part of the Sixteenth century, were affected by the Mannerist trend that was characterized by the use of figures in exaggerated postures and an unrealistic treatment of space, often for dramatic effect. These particular traits are evident in Tintoretto's St. George's Fight with the Dragon and Veronese's The Rape of Europa. The visual aspects of these paintings are diverse and important to analyze. The following section will deal with the artworks in chronological order.

Discussion of the Works in Chronological Order

Venus

The earliest painting in this exhibition is Giorgione's Venus (sometimes known as Sleeping Venus) which was painted circa 1510. Giorgione's painting consists of a figure of Venus integrated in a broad surrounding landscape. Unlike earlier pictures in this mode, his works exhibit a new and highly lyrical use of light; the lighting is soft and hazy and is used to create mood rather than to define sharply the objects in the scene. He purportedly refused to make preparatory drawings, preferring instead to compose directly on the canvas; he felt that this led to a more atmospheric rendering and to more striking color effects. Being one of the first classical reclining nudes in Venetian art, this canvas became a model for many successive paintings, indeed, Titian's Venus of Urbino bears striking resemblances to it.

Feast of the Gods

Giovanni Bellini's Feast of the Gods follows chronologically, and continues the exploration of wide open space with classical poses and subject matter. The background is subdued, but very much a part of the painting, characters interact with it and are a part of nature itself. The lighting is efficient at concentrating one's attention on the right hand side of the painting, where we witness the classical reclining (semi) nude Venus once again. It is believed that this painting was altered after its original conception in order to give the characters godlike attributes. X-ray photography corroborates these assertions, and speculation is that Bellini himself made the alterations, or else a master such as Titian may have been responsible. Some of the changes include the addition of a kingfisher perched in the lower left foreground and the baring of women's breasts that were once decorously covered. A hand that was meant to lay on a rock now clutches Mercury's caduceus, or wand, with its living snakes. A drunkard becomes Neptune with the addition of a trident in the form of a pitchfork. A common woman becomes Aphrodite or Venus with the usage of a classical pose, along with the divine touch of her husband. The feast is in honor of the god Bacchus, who is portrayed as a child because this god took the form of a child on the day of the winter solstice, the day when the feast was celebrated. The Feast of the Gods was the first painting completed for the camerino d'alabastro (Alabaster Chambers) of the Duke of Ferrara.

Bacchanal of the Andrians

Titian's Bacchanal of the Andrians is extremely similar to Bellini's work in theme and layout. However, the content and execution of the work are quite different. Whereas Feast of the Gods was subdued in its content, Bacchanal is irreverent. The landscape is similar to Bellini's, but with less depth, concentrating attention on the orgiastic scene in the forefront of the painting. His light, effusive colors, and open nudity enhance the already jubilant nature of the celebration, and the soft diffused lighting warms the eye as the human and mythic figures titillate the mind. Bacchus was the greek god Dionysus, god of drink and merriment. Traditionally, his celebrations were just as Titian has portrayed it, with much drink and carousing. As in Bellini's work, Bacchus is represented as a child, and is the center of attention in the painting. This work was also commissioned by Alfonso d'Este for his alabaster chambers in his palace in Ferrara. As was often the case with Titian, the Duke did have to wait for over a year past the artist's promised delivery date, when Titian finally brought the painting to Ferrara and finished it there.

Bacchus and Ariadne

Bacchus and Ariadne seems crowded, but in fact Titian has engineered the painting superbly. The main figure, that of Bacchus, has his right hand in the exact center of the painting, and makes an ideal focal point to the action surrounding him. The revellers are confined to the bottom right of the canvas and Bacchus and Ariadne alone occupy the upper left. Bacchus' feet are still with his companions, but his head and heart have joined Ariadne. The red in the sashes worn by both Bacchus and Ariadne causes the eye to move diagonally across the painting and forms a link between the two lovers. In this tale, Ariadne has been abandoned by her lover Theseus, whom she helped to escape from the Minotaur's labyrinth. She wandered alone on the shores of the Greek isle of Naxos, where her life was transformed by love at first sight when her eyes met Bacchus' (as seen in the painting). Bacchus' chariot was traditionally pulled by leopards, signifying his triumphant return from his conquest of India. Titian uses artistic license here to make them cheetahs, which exchange glances mirroring the couple above. A calf's head which lays on the ground in the painting is the remains of an animal devoured by the frenzied revelers in a Bacchic ritual. The head is pulled by an infant satyr who tempts us to join in the celebration. The muscular figure shown wrestling with snakes is based on a celebrated antique Roman statue of the Trojan priest Lacoön who was killed by sea serpents. The other revellers include a musical maenad who mirrors Ariadne's astonished pose; an Atlas-like wine bearer; ecstatic satyrs; and a small dog barking at the whole affair. As a way of distinguishing his work, Titian signed his name on the the urn in the left foreground. The inscription reads "TICIANUS F[ecit]" meaning simply "made by Titian". He was one of the first to sign his works and was active in seeking to raise the social and intellectual status of painters. Another painting commissioned for the duke Alfonso d'Este and his alabaster chambers, this painting was also late, three years passing between the time of commission and the delivery of the work.

Venus of Urbina

Venus of Urbina by Titian is perhaps his best known and most perfect image of feminine beauty. Modeled closely upon Giorgione's Venus, but with Titian's own distinctive mark upon it, Venus of Urbino is of the Renaissance, not of the past. She is neither a marble figure nor an unreachable divinity, but rather a living being. Resting after a bath and with attendants in the room, she lies in an Italian palazzo. Her hair is slightly in a disarray, her face is mildly flushed and her gaze is frank. The casualness of her pose, the way she holds the bouquet are all signs of her grace and perfection. In mythology, Venus was the Greek goddess Aphrodite, the goddess of Love. Her all-embracing love included animals and her love was thought to be the productive force in nature. She was worshipped in Rome in the later years during the month of May, when the flowers and trees sent shoots out and begin to bud. Her traditional symbols were the dove, ram, hare, dolphin, swan, and tortoise, with the rose as a flower. She was a popular subject for Venetian painters because she symbolized attributes that were mainstays of Venetian pride: Strength and Beauty. This work was painted for Guidobaldo della Rovere, the son of Francesco della Rovere and Eleonora Gonzaga.

St. George's Fight with the Dragon

Tintoretto's St. George's Fight with the Dragon breaks with the tradition of rich color and diffuse lighting that was evident in the earlier works presented. The wierd light and broken tones employed add to the feeling of tension and excitement already present. We feel that the drama is just reaching a climax, and the unfinished quality of the painting serves to heighten this feeling of tension. Tintoretto wanted to show things in a new light, and be able to explore new ways of representing the legends and myths of the past. A smooth and careful finish did not interest him, for it did not serve his purpose; in fact it might distract our attention away from the dramatic happenings in the picture. The tale of St. George and the dragon is more symbolic than historical and therefore works well as an allegory in painting. The legend that he saved a Libyan princess by killing a dragon arose in the 12th century. ''George and the Dragon'' may have arisen from the myth of Perseus who slew a sea monster near the site of George's supposed martyrdom (see Perseus and Andromeda p. 12). The dragon, traditionally, was a symbol of evil passions and paganism. Though these beasts are often depicted as fire breathing monsters, they always dwelt in low wetlands, caves, or wells. When the evil passions were disturbed, the monster devoured mankind, usually in the guise of a drought or a dry windstorm. According to the folk tales a fierce dragon lived in a marshy lair outside of Selena, Libya. The great beast ravaged the countryside and could only be placated by regular sacrifices. Every day the villagers were forced to offer the dragon two sheep. When the animals no longer satisfied the monster, a human sacrifice was offered. The land's fairest young maidens were selected by means of a lottery. One day the King's own daughter was chosen to sate the beast's hunger. St. George happened across the princess as she prepared for death. On hearing the maiden's story, St. George made the Sign of the Cross and went to do battle with the monster. Several powerful blows of George's broad sword rendered the beast helpless. St. George then led the dragon in chains to the heart of the village. The townspeople marveled at the saint's faith and the power of his God. All of the community accepted baptism and converted to the true faith. The grateful King promised half of his lands to the savior of the town, but St. George declined the offer of earthly rewards. Instead he told the monarch to do honor to the true Savior by safekeeping God's churches, honoring the clergy, and having pity on the poor. A picturesque hero, he rides a white horse that symbolizes God's grace, kills the dragon that symbolizes evil and rescues a princess.

Perseus and Andromeda

Perseus and Andromeda is a dark and disturbing painting. The cast of brown and earthen tones makes the heroic scene seem grim and imposing. Titian uses this color scheme in order to unite the different parts of this work, the figures becoming as shapes in the composition. Andrew Martindale, in Man and the Renaissance, notes "... Titian's works tended to have an individual tonal unity based on one or two particular colors. Within these limits the blending of complementary colors is often fantastically complicated but the final result is that every area of the picture has an equal strength."². In the original myth, Perseus, returning from slaying Medusa, finds Andromeda chained to a rock near Ethiopia. Andromeda was the daughter of Cepheus and Cassiopeia, the king and queen of Ethiopia, whom had angered the sea god Neptune. He visited their land with storms and ravages and sent a dreadful monster from the sea to destroy both men and cattle. Cepheus was told that the evil would not abate until he exposed his beautiful daughter, Andromeda, to the monster. Perseus found her and was struck by her beauty pledging to save her on the condition that she would be his wife. Cepheus agreed and Perseus slew the monster and unchained the maiden. Unfortunately, she had been engaged to her father's brother beforehand, and when a group of soldiers burst into Perseus' marriage feast, he was compelled to use Medusa's severed head to turn them all to stone.

The Rape of Europa

Veronese's The Rape of Europa calls to mind the work of Bellini in its color and tone, but with differences. The figures are painted in a more robust and three dimensional manner, with fleshy arms and round faces. In the coloring, whereas Bellini employed a mellow tone, Veronese's painting has a silvery appearance. Veronese made use of shadows in this painting, but unlike Tintoretto, the shadows are not allowed to intrude and destroy this festive and brilliant impression. In the mythological story, Zeus atop Mount Olympus falls in love with the young maiden Europa. So, when Europa and her companions came to their favorite meadow one morning, Jupiter (Zeus) descended from Olympus, changed his form into that of a magnificent white bull, and mingled with a herd which Mercury had driven towards the girls. By his regal bearing the Jovian bull stood apart from the rest of the herd. The young ladies, particularly Europa, could not take their eyes from him, he was so majestic and beautiful. The great bull, with noble gentleness, ambled over and knelt at the feet of Europa. He turned his head back and lowed gently, as if inviting her to stroke him and climb upon his back. Europa was entranced. Cautiously she climbed up and sat upon his back and spread garlands of flowers, which she herself had picked, about his neck and horns. As Europa spoke with her playmates the bull gently rose, and then suddenly leaped into the sea carrying Europa with him. Jupiter and Europa came ashore on the island known as Crete, in the southern Aegean Sea. There Jupiter prepared a wedding bed beneath a simple cypress tree, and thereon consumated his love for the fair Europa.

Biography of Artists

Titian (1477?-1576), whose name in Italian is Tiziano Vecellio, was born in Pieve di Cadore, north of Venice, by his own account in 1477; others have advanced this date to about 1487. In Venice, he studied with Gentile Bellini and then with Giovanni Bellini, the style of the latter being impressed upon Titian's work. The first documented reference to Titian dates from 1508, when he was commissioned to paint frescoes, with the Venetian painter Giorgione, on the exterior of the Fondaco dei Tedeschi (the German Exchange). In Padua, in 1511, Titian executed frescoes of three Miracles of St. Anthony for the Scuola del Santo. In 1516 he had been named official painter to the Venetian state; thereafter he worked at the courts of Ferrara and Mantua. Titian died in Venice on August 27, 1576. His work, which had a profound effect on the course of European painting, counter weighted the influence of the linear and sculptural Florentine tradition championed by Michelangelo and Raphael.

Tintoretto (1518-1594), Venetian painter, born Jacopo Robusti. His nickname, which means "little dyer," is an allusion to his father's profession. As a young man he studied briefly with Venetian master Titian, who soon discharged him from his studio. The animosity between the two painters lasted throughout their careers. Unlike Titian, who worked and travelled throughout Italy, Tintoretto lived and worked exclusively in Venice. His output went in large part to churches, religious organizations, and rulers of the city. He received generous commissions and subsequently hired a corps of assistants to help him keep up. Included in this assemblage were his son Domenico and daughter Marietta, whose contributions are often difficult to distinguish from Tintoretto's own. Tintoretto's bold painting methods are perhaps best exemplified by his treatment of the theme of supernatural incursion into human events-as in three paintings of miracles from the legend of Saint Mark executed from 1562 to 1566 for the Scuola di San Marco, the Last Supper (1594) in the Church of San Giorgio Maggiore, and many of the biblical paintings with which Tintoretto adorned the ceilings and walls of the Scuola di San Rocco between 1564 and 1587. Almost equally extensive is the cycle of paintings Tintoretto and his assistants executed for the Doge's Palace (Palazzo Ducale), culminating in the vast Paradise (1588-1590). His effect on Venetian painting was great, a fact attested to by the precipitous decline in Venetian painting after his death in 1594.

Giovanni Bellini(1430?-1516), Venetian painter, was the son of Jacopo and (probably younger) brother of Gentile Bellini. Born in Venice, Giovanni Bellini began as an assistant in his father's workshop and continued painting into his mid-80s, gaining steadily in achievement and recognition. His first phase as an artist was strongly influenced by his formidable brother-in-law, the Paduan painter Andrea. Bellini's historical importance is immense. In his 65-year evolution as an artist, he brought Venetian painting from provincial backwardness into the forefront of Renaissance and the mainstream of Western art. Moreover, his personal orientations predetermined the special nature of Venice's contribution to that mainstream. These include his luminous colorism, his deep response to the natural world, and his warm humanity.

Giorgione (1478?-1510), Italian painter, who invigorated the Venetian school of painting and whose art was unrivalled in the portrayal of mood. Details of Giorgione's life and career are sparse and unreliable, but it appears that he was born in Castelfranco and that he studied under the Venetian painter Giovanni Bellini. His original name was probably Giorgio Barbarelli. No signed and dated works of his remain; most scholars accept a small core of works as his, however, other works that are attributed to him on the basis of indirect evidence are still being debated as to their authenticity. Sleeping Venus (1510?, Gemäldegalerie, Dresden, Germany), attributed to Giorgione, pictures a reclining nude and is one of the first modern works of art in which the female figure is the principal and only subject of the picture. It inaugurated the nude in a landscape setting as one of the great themes of European art and led directly to the work of artists such as Titian.

Veronese, Paolo (1528-1588), born Paolo Caliari in Verona, he was called Veronese for his native city. He learned painting in Verona from Antonio Badile, an artist who painted in the conservative local tradition. That tradition remained fundamental to Veronese's style throughout his career, even after he moved to Venice in 1553. Some of his major commissions include the Temptation of St. Anthony, done for the Cathedral of Mantua in 1552 (Musée des Beaux-Arts, Caen, France), and ceiling paintings (1553-1554) for the Doge's Palace (Palazzo Ducale), Venice. The first phase of Veronese's artistic maturity, about 1555 to 1556, is well represented by his many canvases for the Church of San Sebastiano in Venice. Veronese's fresco decoration (1561?) of the Villa Barbaro at Maser, the one such cycle by him to survive, comes from this period. Here he extended the actual architecture of the villa (1555-1559), built by Italian architect Andrea Palladio, with painted illusory architecture and populated these illusions with both mythological figures and fictional representations of the villa's real inhabitants. In 1573 Veronese was charged with impiety by the Holy Office of the Inquisition for his painting The Last Supper, a depiction of Jesus Christ and his disciples in a grand Venetian gallery adorned with animals, clowns, and other colorful figures. Ordered to make alterations to the elaborate work, Veronese instead changed the name of the painting to Feast in the House of Levi (1573, Accademia, Venice).Veronese died in Venice. Although highly successful during his life, he had little immediate influence. To Flemish baroque master Peter Paul Rubens and to 18th-century Venetian painters, especially Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, however, Veronese's handling of color and perspective supplied an inspiration for further explorations.

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